Agitoxin (T3D2506)
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| Version | 2.0 | ||||||||||
| Creation Date | 2009-07-03 22:19:03 UTC | ||||||||||
| Update Date | 2014-12-24 20:25:38 UTC | ||||||||||
| Accession Number | T3D2506 | ||||||||||
| Identification | |||||||||||
| Common Name | Agitoxin | ||||||||||
| Class | Protein | ||||||||||
| Description | Agitoxin is a peptide toxin produced by the Yellow scorpion (Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus). It binds to and blocks the Shaker potassium channel in Drosophila as well as to its mammalian homologue. (1) | ||||||||||
| Compound Type |
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| Protein Structure |  | ||||||||||
| Synonyms |
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| Chemical Formula | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Average Molecular Mass | 4020.835 g/mol | ||||||||||
| CAS Registry Number | 155646-21-2 | ||||||||||
| Sequence | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Chemical Taxonomy | |||||||||||
| Description | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Kingdom | Organic Compounds | ||||||||||
| Super Class | Organic Acids | ||||||||||
| Class | Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives | ||||||||||
| Sub Class | Amino Acids, Peptides, and Analogues | ||||||||||
| Direct Parent | Peptides | ||||||||||
| Alternative Parents | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Substituents | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Molecular Framework | Not Available | ||||||||||
| External Descriptors | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Biological Properties | |||||||||||
| Status | Detected and Not Quantified | ||||||||||
| Origin | Exogenous | ||||||||||
| Cellular Locations | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Biofluid Locations | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Tissue Locations | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Pathways | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Applications | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Biological Roles | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Chemical Roles | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Physical Properties | |||||||||||
| State | Liquid | ||||||||||
| Appearance | Clear solution. | ||||||||||
| Experimental Properties |
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| Predicted Properties | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Spectra | |||||||||||
| Spectra |
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| Toxicity Profile | |||||||||||
| Route of Exposure | Injection (sting/bite) (5) | ||||||||||
| Mechanism of Toxicity | Agitoxin binds to and blocks the Shaker potassium channel in Drosophila as well as to its mammalian homologue. (1) | ||||||||||
| Metabolism | Free toxin may be removed by opsonization via the reticuloendothelial system (primarily the liver and kidneys) or it may be degraded through cellular internalization via the lysosomes. Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of digestive enzymes, including several proteases. | ||||||||||
| Toxicity Values | LD50: 0.25 mg/kg (Subcutaneous, Mouse) (2) | ||||||||||
| Lethal Dose | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Carcinogenicity (IARC Classification) | No indication of carcinogenicity to humans (not listed by IARC). | ||||||||||
| Uses/Sources | Agitoxin is a peptide toxin produced by the Yellow scorpion (Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus). (1) | ||||||||||
| Minimum Risk Level | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Health Effects | Stings from the Yellow scorpion are painful but not usually fatal. However, in some cases envenomation may cause anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening allergic reaction to the venom. (3) | ||||||||||
| Symptoms | Stings from the Yellow scorpion are painful but not usually fatal. (3) | ||||||||||
| Treatment | An antivenom exists for Leiurus quinquestriatus stings. (4) | ||||||||||
| Normal Concentrations | |||||||||||
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| Abnormal Concentrations | |||||||||||
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| External Links | |||||||||||
| DrugBank ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| HMDB ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| PubChem Compound ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| ChEMBL ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| ChemSpider ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| KEGG ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| UniProt ID | P46110 | ||||||||||
| OMIM ID | |||||||||||
| ChEBI ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| BioCyc ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| CTD ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Stitch ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| PDB ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| ACToR ID | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Wikipedia Link | Not Available | ||||||||||
| References | |||||||||||
| Synthesis Reference | Not Available | ||||||||||
| MSDS | T3D2506.pdf | ||||||||||
| General References |
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| Gene Regulation | |||||||||||
| Up-Regulated Genes | Not Available | ||||||||||
| Down-Regulated Genes | Not Available | ||||||||||
Targets
- General Function:
- Voltage-gated potassium channel activity
- Specific Function:
- Voltage-gated potassium channel that mediates transmembrane potassium transport in excitable membranes, primarily in the brain and the central nervous system, but also in the kidney (PubMed:19903818). Contributes to the regulation of the membrane potential and nerve signaling, and prevents neuronal hyperexcitability (PubMed:17156368). Forms tetrameric potassium-selective channels through which potassium ions pass in accordance with their electrochemical gradient. The channel alternates between opened and closed conformations in response to the voltage difference across the membrane (PubMed:19912772). Can form functional homotetrameric channels and heterotetrameric channels that contain variable proportions of KCNA1, KCNA2, KCNA4, KCNA5, KCNA6, KCNA7, and possibly other family members as well; channel properties depend on the type of alpha subunits that are part of the channel (PubMed:12077175, PubMed:17156368). Channel properties are modulated by cytoplasmic beta subunits that regulate the subcellular location of the alpha subunits and promote rapid inactivation of delayed rectifier potassium channels (PubMed:12077175, PubMed:17156368). In vivo, membranes probably contain a mixture of heteromeric potassium channel complexes, making it difficult to assign currents observed in intact tissues to any particular potassium channel family member. Homotetrameric KCNA1 forms a delayed-rectifier potassium channel that opens in response to membrane depolarization, followed by slow spontaneous channel closure (PubMed:19912772, PubMed:19968958, PubMed:19307729, PubMed:19903818). In contrast, a heterotetrameric channel formed by KCNA1 and KCNA4 shows rapid inactivation (PubMed:17156368). Regulates neuronal excitability in hippocampus, especially in mossy fibers and medial perforant path axons, preventing neuronal hyperexcitability. Response to toxins that are selective for KCNA1, respectively for KCNA2, suggests that heteromeric potassium channels composed of both KCNA1 and KCNA2 play a role in pacemaking and regulate the output of deep cerebellar nuclear neurons (By similarity). May function as down-stream effector for G protein-coupled receptors and inhibit GABAergic inputs to basolateral amygdala neurons (By similarity). May contribute to the regulation of neurotransmitter release, such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) release (By similarity). Plays a role in regulating the generation of action potentials and preventing hyperexcitability in myelinated axons of the vagus nerve, and thereby contributes to the regulation of heart contraction (By similarity). Required for normal neuromuscular responses (PubMed:11026449, PubMed:17136396). Regulates the frequency of neuronal action potential firing in response to mechanical stimuli, and plays a role in the perception of pain caused by mechanical stimuli, but does not play a role in the perception of pain due to heat stimuli (By similarity). Required for normal responses to auditory stimuli and precise location of sound sources, but not for sound perception (By similarity). The use of toxins that block specific channels suggest that it contributes to the regulation of the axonal release of the neurotransmitter dopamine (By similarity). Required for normal postnatal brain development and normal proliferation of neuronal precursor cells in the brain (By similarity). Plays a role in the reabsorption of Mg(2+) in the distal convoluted tubules in the kidney and in magnesium ion homeostasis, probably via its effect on the membrane potential (PubMed:23903368, PubMed:19307729).
- Gene Name:
- KCNA1
- Uniprot ID:
- Q09470
- Molecular Weight:
- 56465.01 Da
References
- Hahn ME, Goldstein JA, Linko P, Gasiewicz TA: Interaction of hexachlorobenzene with the receptor for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in vitro and in vivo. Evidence that hexachlorobenzene is a weak Ah receptor agonist. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1989 Apr;270(1):344-55. [2539049 ]
- General Function:
- Intracellular cyclic nucleotide activated cation channel activity
- Specific Function:
- Mediates voltage-dependent potassium ion permeability of excitable membranes. Assuming opened or closed conformations in response to the voltage difference across the membrane, the protein forms a potassium-selective channel through which potassium ions may pass in accordance with their electrochemical gradient. The channel activity is up-regulated by cAMP.
- Gene Name:
- KCNA10
- Uniprot ID:
- Q16322
- Molecular Weight:
- 57784.47 Da
References
- Hahn ME, Goldstein JA, Linko P, Gasiewicz TA: Interaction of hexachlorobenzene with the receptor for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in vitro and in vivo. Evidence that hexachlorobenzene is a weak Ah receptor agonist. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1989 Apr;270(1):344-55. [2539049 ]
- General Function:
- Voltage-gated potassium channel activity
- Specific Function:
- Voltage-gated potassium channel that mediates transmembrane potassium transport in excitable membranes, primarily in the brain and the central nervous system, but also in the cardiovascular system. Prevents aberrant action potential firing and regulates neuronal output. Forms tetrameric potassium-selective channels through which potassium ions pass in accordance with their electrochemical gradient. The channel alternates between opened and closed conformations in response to the voltage difference across the membrane (PubMed:19912772, PubMed:8495559, PubMed:11211111, PubMed:23769686). Can form functional homotetrameric channels and heterotetrameric channels that contain variable proportions of KCNA1, KCNA2, KCNA4, KCNA5, KCNA6, KCNA7, and possibly other family members as well; channel properties depend on the type of alpha subunits that are part of the channel (PubMed:8495559, PubMed:20220134). Channel properties are modulated by cytoplasmic beta subunits that regulate the subcellular location of the alpha subunits and promote rapid inactivation of delayed rectifier potassium channels. In vivo, membranes probably contain a mixture of heteromeric potassium channel complexes, making it difficult to assign currents observed in intact tissues to any particular potassium channel family member. Homotetrameric KCNA2 forms a delayed-rectifier potassium channel that opens in response to membrane depolarization, followed by slow spontaneous channel closure (PubMed:19912772, PubMed:23769686). In contrast, a heteromultimer formed by KCNA2 and KCNA4 shows rapid inactivation (PubMed:8495559). Regulates neuronal excitability and plays a role as pacemaker in the regulation of neuronal action potentials (By similarity). KCNA2-containing channels play a presynaptic role and prevent hyperexcitability and aberrant action potential firing (By similarity). Response to toxins that are selective for KCNA2-containing potassium channels suggests that in Purkinje cells, dendritic subthreshold KCNA2-containing potassium channels prevent random spontaneous calcium spikes, suppressing dendritic hyperexcitability without hindering the generation of somatic action potentials, and thereby play an important role in motor coordination (By similarity). Plays a role in the induction of long-term potentiation of neuron excitability in the CA3 layer of the hippocampus (By similarity). May function as down-stream effector for G protein-coupled receptors and inhibit GABAergic inputs to basolateral amygdala neurons (By similarity). May contribute to the regulation of neurotransmitter release, such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (By similarity). Contributes to the regulation of the axonal release of the neurotransmitter dopamine (By similarity). Reduced KCNA2 expression plays a role in the perception of neuropathic pain after peripheral nerve injury, but not acute pain (By similarity). Plays a role in the regulation of the time spent in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep (By similarity).
- Gene Name:
- KCNA2
- Uniprot ID:
- P16389
- Molecular Weight:
- 56716.21 Da
References
- Hahn ME, Goldstein JA, Linko P, Gasiewicz TA: Interaction of hexachlorobenzene with the receptor for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in vitro and in vivo. Evidence that hexachlorobenzene is a weak Ah receptor agonist. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1989 Apr;270(1):344-55. [2539049 ]
- General Function:
- Voltage-gated ion channel activity
- Specific Function:
- Mediates the voltage-dependent potassium ion permeability of excitable membranes. Assuming opened or closed conformations in response to the voltage difference across the membrane, the protein forms a potassium-selective channel through which potassium ions may pass in accordance with their electrochemical gradient.
- Gene Name:
- KCNA3
- Uniprot ID:
- P22001
- Molecular Weight:
- 63841.09 Da
References
- Hahn ME, Goldstein JA, Linko P, Gasiewicz TA: Interaction of hexachlorobenzene with the receptor for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in vitro and in vivo. Evidence that hexachlorobenzene is a weak Ah receptor agonist. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1989 Apr;270(1):344-55. [2539049 ]
- General Function:
- Voltage-gated potassium channel activity
- Specific Function:
- Voltage-gated potassium channel that mediates transmembrane potassium transport in excitable membranes. Forms tetrameric potassium-selective channels through which potassium ions pass in accordance with their electrochemical gradient. The channel alternates between opened and closed conformations in response to the voltage difference across the membrane (PubMed:19912772, PubMed:8495559). Can form functional homotetrameric channels and heterotetrameric channels that contain variable proportions of KCNA1, KCNA2, KCNA4, KCNA5, and possibly other family members as well; channel properties depend on the type of alpha subunits that are part of the channel (PubMed:8495559). Channel properties are modulated by cytoplasmic beta subunits that regulate the subcellular location of the alpha subunits and promote rapid inactivation. In vivo, membranes probably contain a mixture of heteromeric potassium channel complexes, making it difficult to assign currents observed in intact tissues to any particular potassium channel family member. Homotetrameric KCNA4 forms a potassium channel that opens in response to membrane depolarization, followed by rapid spontaneous channel closure (PubMed:19912772, PubMed:8495559). Likewise, a heterotetrameric channel formed by KCNA1 and KCNA4 shows rapid inactivation (PubMed:17156368).
- Gene Name:
- KCNA4
- Uniprot ID:
- P22459
- Molecular Weight:
- 73256.64 Da
References
- Hahn ME, Goldstein JA, Linko P, Gasiewicz TA: Interaction of hexachlorobenzene with the receptor for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in vitro and in vivo. Evidence that hexachlorobenzene is a weak Ah receptor agonist. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1989 Apr;270(1):344-55. [2539049 ]
- General Function:
- Voltage-gated potassium channel activity involved in sa node cell action potential repolarization
- Specific Function:
- Voltage-gated potassium channel that mediates transmembrane potassium transport in excitable membranes. Forms tetrameric potassium-selective channels through which potassium ions pass in accordance with their electrochemical gradient. The channel alternates between opened and closed conformations in response to the voltage difference across the membrane. Can form functional homotetrameric channels and heterotetrameric channels that contain variable proportions of KCNA1, KCNA2, KCNA4, KCNA5, and possibly other family members as well; channel properties depend on the type of alpha subunits that are part of the channel (PubMed:12130714). Channel properties are modulated by cytoplasmic beta subunits that regulate the subcellular location of the alpha subunits and promote rapid inactivation (PubMed:12130714). Homotetrameric channels display rapid activation and slow inactivation (PubMed:8505626, PubMed:12130714). May play a role in regulating the secretion of insulin in normal pancreatic islets. Isoform 2 exhibits a voltage-dependent recovery from inactivation and an excessive cumulative inactivation (PubMed:11524461).
- Gene Name:
- KCNA5
- Uniprot ID:
- P22460
- Molecular Weight:
- 67227.15 Da
References
- Hahn ME, Goldstein JA, Linko P, Gasiewicz TA: Interaction of hexachlorobenzene with the receptor for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in vitro and in vivo. Evidence that hexachlorobenzene is a weak Ah receptor agonist. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1989 Apr;270(1):344-55. [2539049 ]
- General Function:
- Voltage-gated potassium channel activity
- Specific Function:
- Voltage-gated potassium channel that mediates transmembrane potassium transport in excitable membranes. Forms tetrameric potassium-selective channels through which potassium ions pass in accordance with their electrochemical gradient (PubMed:2347305, PubMed:14575698). The channel alternates between opened and closed conformations in response to the voltage difference across the membrane (PubMed:2347305, PubMed:14575698). Can form functional homotetrameric channels and heterotetrameric channels that contain variable proportions of KCNA1, KCNA2, KCNA4, KCNA6, and possibly other family members as well; channel properties depend on the type of alpha subunits that are part of the channel (By similarity). Channel properties are modulated by cytoplasmic beta subunits that regulate the subcellular location of the alpha subunits and promote rapid inactivation (By similarity). Homotetrameric channels display rapid activation and slow inactivation (PubMed:2347305).
- Gene Name:
- KCNA6
- Uniprot ID:
- P17658
- Molecular Weight:
- 58728.21 Da
References
- Hahn ME, Goldstein JA, Linko P, Gasiewicz TA: Interaction of hexachlorobenzene with the receptor for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in vitro and in vivo. Evidence that hexachlorobenzene is a weak Ah receptor agonist. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1989 Apr;270(1):344-55. [2539049 ]
- General Function:
- Delayed rectifier potassium channel activity
- Specific Function:
- Mediates the voltage-dependent potassium ion permeability of excitable membranes. Assuming opened or closed conformations in response to the voltage difference across the membrane, the protein forms a potassium-selective channel through which potassium ions may pass in accordance with their electrochemical gradient (By similarity).
- Gene Name:
- KCNA7
- Uniprot ID:
- Q96RP8
- Molecular Weight:
- 50558.415 Da
References
- Hahn ME, Goldstein JA, Linko P, Gasiewicz TA: Interaction of hexachlorobenzene with the receptor for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in vitro and in vivo. Evidence that hexachlorobenzene is a weak Ah receptor agonist. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1989 Apr;270(1):344-55. [2539049 ]