T3DB: Putrescine

Identification Taxonomy Biological Properties Physical Properties Toxicity Profile Spectra Concentrations Links References Gene Regulation Targets (7)XML

Targets (7)

Record Information

Version

2.0

Creation Date

2014-08-29 05:48:54 UTC

Update Date

2014-12-24 20:26:41 UTC

Accession Number

T3D4169

Identification

Common Name

Putrescine

Class

Small Molecule

Description

Putrescine is a uremic toxin. Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. Putrescine is a polyamine. Putrescine is related to cadaverine (another polyamine). Both are produced by the breakdown of amino acids in living and dead organisms and both are toxic in large doses. Putrescine and cadaverine are largely responsible for the foul odor of putrefying flesh, but also contribute to the odor of such processes as bad breath and bacterial vaginosis. Putrescine is also found in semen. Putrescine attacks s-adenosyl methionine and converts it to spermidine. Spermidine in turn attacks another s-adenosyl methionine and converts it to spermine. Putrescine is synthesized in small quantities by healthy living cells by the action of ornithine decarboxylase. The polyamines, of which putrescine is one of the simplest, appear to be growth factors necessary for cell division. Putrescine apparently has specific role in skin physiology and neuroprotection. Pharmacological interventions have demonstrated convincingly that a steady supply of polyamines is a prerequisite for cell proliferation to occur. Genetic engineering of polyamine metabolism in transgenic rodents has shown that polyamines play a role in spermatogenesis, skin physiology, promotion of tumorigenesis and organ hypertrophy as well as neuronal protection. Transgenic activation of polyamine catabolism not only profoundly disturbs polyamine homeostasis in most tissues, but also creates a complex phenotype affecting skin, female fertility, fat depots, pancreatic integrity and regenerative growth. Transgenic expression of ornithine decarboxylase antizyme has suggested that this unique protein may act as a general tumor suppressor. Homozygous deficiency of the key biosynthetic enzymes of the polyamines, ornithine and S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase is not compatible with murine embryogenesis. (1, 2).

Compound Type

Food Toxin
Metabolite
Natural Compound
Organic Compound
Uremic Toxin

Chemical Structure

MOL SDF PDB SMILES InChI

Synonyms

Synonym
1,4-Butanediamine
1,4-Butanediammonium
1,4-Butylenediamine
1,4-Diaminobutane
1,4-Tetramethylenediamine
Butylenediamine
Putrescin
Tetramethyldiamine
Tetramethylenediamine

Chemical Formula

C₄H₁₂N₂

Average Molecular Mass

88.152 g/mol

Monoisotopic Mass

88.100 g/mol

CAS Registry Number

110-60-1

IUPAC Name

butane-1,4-diamine

Traditional Name

putrescine

SMILES

NCCCCN

InChI Identifier

InChI=1S/C4H12N2/c5-3-1-2-4-6/h1-6H2

InChI Key

InChIKey=KIDHWZJUCRJVML-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Chemical Taxonomy

Description

belongs to the class of organic compounds known as monoalkylamines. These are organic compounds containing an primary aliphatic amine group.

Kingdom

Organic compounds

Super Class

Organic nitrogen compounds

Class

Organonitrogen compounds

Sub Class

Amines

Direct Parent

Monoalkylamines

Alternative Parents

Substituents

Organopnictogen compound
Hydrocarbon derivative
Primary aliphatic amine
Aliphatic acyclic compound

Molecular Framework

Aliphatic acyclic compounds

External Descriptors

alkane-alpha,omega-diamine (CHEBI:17148 )
Biogenic amines (C00134 )
an aliphatic α,ω-diamine (PUTRESCINE )

Biological Properties

Status

Detected and Not Quantified

Origin

Endogenous

Cellular Locations

Cytoplasm
Extracellular
Mitochondria

Biofluid Locations

Not Available

Tissue Locations

Brain
Erythrocyte
Fibroblasts
Liver
Muscle
Neuron
Placenta
Platelet
Prostate
Skin
Testes

Pathways

Name	SMPDB Link	KEGG Link
Methionine Metabolism	SMP00033	map00270
Spermidine and Spermine Biosynthesis	SMP00445	Not Available

Applications

Not Available

Biological Roles

fundamental metabolite

Chemical Roles

Not Available

Physical Properties

State

Solid

Appearance

White powder.

Experimental Properties

Property	Value
Melting Point	27.5°C
Boiling Point	Not Available
Solubility	Not Available
LogP	-0.7

Predicted Properties

Property	Value	Source
Water Solubility	236 g/L	ALOGPS
logP	-0.98	ALOGPS
logP	-0.85	ChemAxon
logS	0.43	ALOGPS
pKa (Strongest Basic)	10.51	ChemAxon
Physiological Charge	2	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count	2	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Donor Count	2	ChemAxon
Polar Surface Area	52.04 Å²	ChemAxon
Rotatable Bond Count	3	ChemAxon
Refractivity	27.38 m³·mol⁻¹	ChemAxon
Polarizability	11.07 Å³	ChemAxon
Number of Rings	0	ChemAxon
Bioavailability	1	ChemAxon
Rule of Five	Yes	ChemAxon
Ghose Filter	Yes	ChemAxon
Veber's Rule	Yes	ChemAxon
MDDR-like Rule	Yes	ChemAxon

Spectra

Spectrum Type	Description	Splash Key	Deposition Date	View
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (4 TMS)	splash10-00di-1910000000-5694141cafbe39951441	2014-06-16	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-1900000000-eeb4354250406805ebe6	2014-06-16	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Pegasus III TOF-MS system, Leco; GC 6890, Agilent Technologies) (4 TMS)	splash10-00di-8910000000-af71049ab8358b0042ff	2014-06-16	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (2 TMS)	splash10-00di-8900000000-0ba23327cabd9b2815f5	2014-06-16	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (3 TMS)	splash10-00di-2900000000-234e1b62f4e830226779	2014-06-16	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (4 TMS)	splash10-00di-1900000000-e29f1004e27fcb9cfe7b	2014-06-16	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)	splash10-001i-9000000000-224d3a5d3fbe7e1c6bd4	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - EI-B (Non-derivatized)	splash10-001i-9000000000-5759f91b24f2e27cc466	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - CI-B (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-9000000000-226a78b715ff64ec7067	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-1910000000-5694141cafbe39951441	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-1900000000-eeb4354250406805ebe6	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-8910000000-af71049ab8358b0042ff	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-8900000000-0ba23327cabd9b2815f5	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-2900000000-234e1b62f4e830226779	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-1900000000-e29f1004e27fcb9cfe7b	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-8900000000-0ba23327cabd9b2815f5	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-2900000000-234e1b62f4e830226779	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-1900000000-e29f1004e27fcb9cfe7b	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-1900000000-6861f65288867dab7690	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
GC-MS	GC-MS Spectrum - GC-EI-TOF (Non-derivatized)	splash10-00di-2900000000-7923303f8f970b8d2dd6	2017-09-12	View Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, Positive	splash10-001i-9000000000-4d1729dd236ab6f44cd9	2016-09-22	View Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - GC-MS (Non-derivatized) - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	2021-10-12	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 10V, Positive (Annotated)	splash10-00di-9000000000-f718a117761c1c7ea80d	2012-07-24	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 25V, Positive (Annotated)	splash10-00di-9000000000-47752c8c65e2d83e78fb	2012-07-24	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 40V, Positive (Annotated)	splash10-00du-9000000000-3603b20551e892ad6c5e	2012-07-24	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - EI-B (HITACHI RMU-6L) , Positive	splash10-001i-9000000000-224d3a5d3fbe7e1c6bd4	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - EI-B (HITACHI RMU-6M) , Positive	splash10-001i-9000000000-5759f91b24f2e27cc466	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - CI-B (HITACHI M-80) , Positive	splash10-00di-9000000000-226a78b715ff64ec7067	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 10V, Positive	splash10-00dr-9000000000-0b342438cba3ac71bccb	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 20V, Positive	splash10-00di-9000000000-8add450cd915232f7353	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 30V, Positive	splash10-00di-9000000000-7a496471bdf7e391fdc8	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 40V, Positive	splash10-00di-9000000000-84da87b521647b4f42ab	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ (API3000, Applied Biosystems) 50V, Positive	splash10-001l-9000000000-3ca1e2cd5a7e125ac52e	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QTOF (UPLC Q-Tof Premier, Waters) , Positive	splash10-000i-9000000000-830221d5ea74a91c32e1	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , positive	splash10-00dr-9000000000-0b342438cba3ac71bccb	2017-09-14	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , positive	splash10-00di-9000000000-8add450cd915232f7353	2017-09-14	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , positive	splash10-00di-9000000000-7a496471bdf7e391fdc8	2017-09-14	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , positive	splash10-00di-9000000000-84da87b521647b4f42ab	2017-09-14	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QQ , positive	splash10-001l-9000000000-3ca1e2cd5a7e125ac52e	2017-09-14	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QTOF , positive	splash10-000i-9000000000-830221d5ea74a91c32e1	2017-09-14	View Spectrum
LC-MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positive	splash10-00dl-9000000000-81dccfb50af8f3631f9b	2021-09-20	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positive	splash10-0079-9000000000-896934367d7bc245c8b3	2015-05-26	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positive	splash10-05g0-9000000000-96d51f0aa46b0ab332d0	2015-05-26	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positive	splash10-0a4l-9000000000-de02b50a4b8a279875e4	2015-05-26	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negative	splash10-000i-9000000000-73c448854a91ad5a9644	2015-05-27	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negative	splash10-000i-9000000000-c600a93b8d737a254884	2015-05-27	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Negative	splash10-059f-9000000000-ce7ae61a17ef7cb9b2c2	2015-05-27	View Spectrum
MS	Mass Spectrum (Electron Ionization)	splash10-001i-9000000000-2b410aa72c9bb951a79d	2014-09-20	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 125 MHz, H₂O, experimental)	Not Available	2012-12-04	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 600 MHz, H₂O, experimental)	Not Available	2012-12-04	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, D₂O, experimental)	Not Available	2016-10-22	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 100 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 100 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 1000 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 1000 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 200 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 200 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 300 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 300 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 400 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 400 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 500 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 500 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 600 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 600 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 700 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 700 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 800 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 800 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 900 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 900 MHz, D₂O, predicted)	Not Available	2021-09-25	View Spectrum
1D NMR	¹³C NMR Spectrum (1D, 400 MHz, H₂O, experimental)	Not Available	2021-10-10	View Spectrum
2D NMR	[¹H, ¹H]-TOCSY. Unexported temporarily by An Chi on Oct 15, 2021 until json or nmrML file is generated. 2D NMR Spectrum (experimental)	Not Available	2012-12-04	View Spectrum
2D NMR	[¹H, ¹³C]-HSQC NMR Spectrum (2D, 600 MHz, H₂O, experimental)	Not Available	2012-12-05	View Spectrum

Toxicity Profile

Route of Exposure

Endogenous, Ingestion, Dermal (contact)

Mechanism of Toxicity

Uremic toxins such as putrescine are actively transported into the kidneys via organic ion transporters (especially OAT3). Increased levels of uremic toxins can stimulate the production of reactive oxygen species. This seems to be mediated by the direct binding or inhibition by uremic toxins of the enzyme NADPH oxidase (especially NOX4 which is abundant in the kidneys and heart) (4). Reactive oxygen species can induce several different DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) which are involved in the silencing of a protein known as KLOTHO. KLOTHO has been identified as having important roles in anti-aging, mineral metabolism, and vitamin D metabolism. A number of studies have indicated that KLOTHO mRNA and protein levels are reduced during acute or chronic kidney diseases in response to high local levels of reactive oxygen species (5).

Metabolism

Uremic toxins tend to accumulate in the blood either through dietary excess or through poor filtration by the kidneys. Most uremic toxins are metabolic waste products and are normally excreted in the urine or feces.

Toxicity Values

Not Available

Lethal Dose

Not Available

Carcinogenicity (IARC Classification)

Not listed by IARC.

Uses/Sources

Naturally produced by the body (endogenous).

Minimum Risk Level

Not Available

Health Effects

Chronic exposure to uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.

Symptoms

As a uremic toxin, this compound can cause uremic syndrome. Uremic syndrome may affect any part of the body and can cause nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and weight loss. It can also cause changes in mental status, such as confusion, reduced awareness, agitation, psychosis, seizures, and coma. Abnormal bleeding, such as bleeding spontaneously or profusely from a very minor injury can also occur. Heart problems, such as an irregular heartbeat, inflammation in the sac that surrounds the heart (pericarditis), and increased pressure on the heart can be seen in patients with uremic syndrome. Shortness of breath from fluid buildup in the space between the lungs and the chest wall (pleural effusion) can also be present.

Treatment

Kidney dialysis is usually needed to relieve the symptoms of uremic syndrome until normal kidney function can be restored.

Normal Concentrations

Not Available

Abnormal Concentrations

Not Available

External Links

DrugBank ID

HMDB ID

PubChem Compound ID

ChEMBL ID

ChemSpider ID

KEGG ID

UniProt ID

Not Available

OMIM ID

ChEBI ID

17148

BioCyc ID

PUTRESCINE

CTD ID

Not Available

Stitch ID

Not Available

PDB ID

PUT

ACToR ID

Not Available

Wikipedia Link

Putrescine

References

Synthesis Reference

Sang Yup Lee, Zhi Gang Qian, Xiaoxia Xia, Yong Jae Jeon, “MUTANT MICROORGANISMS HAVING A HIGH ABILITY TO PRODUCE PUTRESCINE AND METHOD FOR PRODUCING PUTRESCINE USING THE SAME.” U.S. Patent US20100203599, issued August 12, 2010.

MSDS

T3D4169.pdf

General References

Janne J, Alhonen L, Pietila M, Keinanen TA: Genetic approaches to the cellular functions of polyamines in mammals. Eur J Biochem. 2004 Mar;271(5):877-94. [15009201 ]
Janne J, Alhonen L, Keinanen TA, Pietila M, Uimari A, Pirinen E, Hyvonen MT, Jarvinen A: Animal disease models generated by genetic engineering of polyamine metabolism. J Cell Mol Med. 2005 Oct-Dec;9(4):865-82. [16364196 ]
Duranton F, Cohen G, De Smet R, Rodriguez M, Jankowski J, Vanholder R, Argiles A: Normal and pathologic concentrations of uremic toxins. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012 Jul;23(7):1258-70. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2011121175. Epub 2012 May 24. [22626821 ]
Schulz AM, Terne C, Jankowski V, Cohen G, Schaefer M, Boehringer F, Tepel M, Kunkel D, Zidek W, Jankowski J: Modulation of NADPH oxidase activity by known uraemic retention solutes. Eur J Clin Invest. 2014 Aug;44(8):802-11. doi: 10.1111/eci.12297. [25041433 ]
Young GH, Wu VC: KLOTHO methylation is linked to uremic toxins and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2012 Apr;81(7):611-2. doi: 10.1038/ki.2011.461. [22419041 ]
Reeben M, Arbatova J, Palgi J, Miettinen R, Halmekyto M, Alhonen L, Janne J, Riekkinen P Sr, Saarma M: Induced expression of neurotrophins in transgenic mice overexpressing ornithine decarboxylase and overproducing putrescine. J Neurosci Res. 1996 Sep 1;45(5):542-8. [8875319 ]
Takagi K, Tatsumi Y, Kitaichi K, Iwase M, Shibata E, Nakao M, Matsumoto T, Takagi K, Hasegawa T: A sensitive colorimetric assay for polyamines in erythrocytes using oat seedling polyamine oxidase. Clin Chim Acta. 2004 Feb;340(1-2):219-27. [14734216 ]
Harik SI, Sutton CH: Putrescine as a biochemical marker of malignant brain tumors. Cancer Res. 1979 Dec;39(12):5010-5. [227593 ]
Gimelli G, Giglio S, Zuffardi O, Alhonen L, Suppola S, Cusano R, Lo Nigro C, Gatti R, Ravazzolo R, Seri M: Gene dosage of the spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyltransferase ( SSAT) gene with putrescine accumulation in a patient with a Xp21.1p22.12 duplication and keratosis follicularis spinulosa decalvans (KFSD). Hum Genet. 2002 Sep;111(3):235-41. Epub 2002 Aug 1. [12215835 ]
Venza M, Visalli M, Cicciu D, Teti D: Determination of polyamines in human saliva by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl. 2001 Jun 5;757(1):111-7. [11419735 ]
Halmekyto M, Alhonen L, Alakuijala L, Janne J: Transgenic mice over-producing putrescine in their tissues do not convert the diamine into higher polyamines. Biochem J. 1993 Apr 15;291 ( Pt 2):505-8. [8484731 ]
Goldman SS, Volkow ND, Brodie J, Flamm ES: Putrescine metabolism in human brain tumors. J Neurooncol. 1986;4(1):23-9. [3746382 ]
El Baze P, Milano G, Verrando P, Renee N, Ortonne JP: Polyamine levels in normal human skin. A comparative study of pure epidermis, pure dermis, and suction blister fluid. Arch Dermatol Res. 1983;275(4):218-21. [6625645 ]
Yamazaki H, Tsukahara T, Uki J, Matsuzaki S: Elevated levels of free putrescine and N1-acetylspermidine in cyst fluids of malignant brain tumours. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1986 Feb;49(2):209-10. [3950641 ]
Sreekumar A, Poisson LM, Rajendiran TM, Khan AP, Cao Q, Yu J, Laxman B, Mehra R, Lonigro RJ, Li Y, Nyati MK, Ahsan A, Kalyana-Sundaram S, Han B, Cao X, Byun J, Omenn GS, Ghosh D, Pennathur S, Alexander DC, Berger A, Shuster JR, Wei JT, Varambally S, Beecher C, Chinnaiyan AM: Metabolomic profiles delineate potential role for sarcosine in prostate cancer progression. Nature. 2009 Feb 12;457(7231):910-4. doi: 10.1038/nature07762. [19212411 ]
Thiele I, Swainston N, Fleming RM, Hoppe A, Sahoo S, Aurich MK, Haraldsdottir H, Mo ML, Rolfsson O, Stobbe MD, Thorleifsson SG, Agren R, Bolling C, Bordel S, Chavali AK, Dobson P, Dunn WB, Endler L, Hala D, Hucka M, Hull D, Jameson D, Jamshidi N, Jonsson JJ, Juty N, Keating S, Nookaew I, Le Novere N, Malys N, Mazein A, Papin JA, Price ND, Selkov E Sr, Sigurdsson MI, Simeonidis E, Sonnenschein N, Smallbone K, Sorokin A, van Beek JH, Weichart D, Goryanin I, Nielsen J, Westerhoff HV, Kell DB, Mendes P, Palsson BO: A community-driven global reconstruction of human metabolism. Nat Biotechnol. 2013 May;31(5):419-25. doi: 10.1038/nbt.2488. Epub 2013 Mar 3. [23455439 ]

Gene Regulation

Up-Regulated Genes

Not Available

Down-Regulated Genes

Not Available

Targets

Target Details

1. Ornithine decarboxylase

General Function:: Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function:: Key enzyme of polyamine biosynthesis that converts ornithine into putrescine, which is the precursor for the polyamines, spermidine and spermine.
Gene Name:: ODC1
Uniprot ID:: P11926
Molecular Weight:: 51147.73 Da

References

Overington JP, Al-Lazikani B, Hopkins AL: How many drug targets are there? Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2006 Dec;5(12):993-6. [17139284 ]
Imming P, Sinning C, Meyer A: Drugs, their targets and the nature and number of drug targets. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2006 Oct;5(10):821-34. [17016423 ]
Berman HM, Westbrook J, Feng Z, Gilliland G, Bhat TN, Weissig H, Shindyalov IN, Bourne PE: The Protein Data Bank. Nucleic Acids Res. 2000 Jan 1;28(1):235-42. [10592235 ]
Schulz AM, Terne C, Jankowski V, Cohen G, Schaefer M, Boehringer F, Tepel M, Kunkel D, Zidek W, Jankowski J: Modulation of NADPH oxidase activity by known uraemic retention solutes. Eur J Clin Invest. 2014 Aug;44(8):802-11. doi: 10.1111/eci.12297. [25041433 ]
Young GH, Wu VC: KLOTHO methylation is linked to uremic toxins and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2012 Apr;81(7):611-2. doi: 10.1038/ki.2011.461. [22419041 ]

Target Details

2. S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase proenzyme

General Function:: Putrescine binding
Specific Function:: Essential for biosynthesis of the polyamines spermidine and spermine. Promotes maintenance and self-renewal of embryonic stem cells, by maintaining spermine levels (By similarity).
Gene Name:: AMD1
Uniprot ID:: P17707
Molecular Weight:: 38339.335 Da

References

Overington JP, Al-Lazikani B, Hopkins AL: How many drug targets are there? Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2006 Dec;5(12):993-6. [17139284 ]
Imming P, Sinning C, Meyer A: Drugs, their targets and the nature and number of drug targets. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2006 Oct;5(10):821-34. [17016423 ]
Schulz AM, Terne C, Jankowski V, Cohen G, Schaefer M, Boehringer F, Tepel M, Kunkel D, Zidek W, Jankowski J: Modulation of NADPH oxidase activity by known uraemic retention solutes. Eur J Clin Invest. 2014 Aug;44(8):802-11. doi: 10.1111/eci.12297. [25041433 ]
Young GH, Wu VC: KLOTHO methylation is linked to uremic toxins and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2012 Apr;81(7):611-2. doi: 10.1038/ki.2011.461. [22419041 ]

Target Details

3. Beta-1 adrenergic receptor

General Function:: Receptor signaling protein activity
Specific Function:: Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. This receptor binds epinephrine and norepinephrine with approximately equal affinity. Mediates Ras activation through G(s)-alpha- and cAMP-mediated signaling.
Gene Name:: ADRB1
Uniprot ID:: P08588
Molecular Weight:: 51322.1 Da

References

Meana C, Bordallo J, Bordallo C, Suarez L, Cantabrana B, Sanchez M: Functional effects of polyamines via activation of human beta1- and beta2-adrenoceptors stably expressed in CHO cells. Pharmacol Rep. 2010 Jul-Aug;62(4):696-706. [20885010 ]
Schulz AM, Terne C, Jankowski V, Cohen G, Schaefer M, Boehringer F, Tepel M, Kunkel D, Zidek W, Jankowski J: Modulation of NADPH oxidase activity by known uraemic retention solutes. Eur J Clin Invest. 2014 Aug;44(8):802-11. doi: 10.1111/eci.12297. [25041433 ]
Young GH, Wu VC: KLOTHO methylation is linked to uremic toxins and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2012 Apr;81(7):611-2. doi: 10.1038/ki.2011.461. [22419041 ]

Target Details

4. Beta-2 adrenergic receptor

General Function:: Protein homodimerization activity
Specific Function:: Beta-adrenergic receptors mediate the catecholamine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase through the action of G proteins. The beta-2-adrenergic receptor binds epinephrine with an approximately 30-fold greater affinity than it does norepinephrine.
Gene Name:: ADRB2
Uniprot ID:: P07550
Molecular Weight:: 46458.32 Da

References

Meana C, Bordallo J, Bordallo C, Suarez L, Cantabrana B, Sanchez M: Functional effects of polyamines via activation of human beta1- and beta2-adrenoceptors stably expressed in CHO cells. Pharmacol Rep. 2010 Jul-Aug;62(4):696-706. [20885010 ]
Schulz AM, Terne C, Jankowski V, Cohen G, Schaefer M, Boehringer F, Tepel M, Kunkel D, Zidek W, Jankowski J: Modulation of NADPH oxidase activity by known uraemic retention solutes. Eur J Clin Invest. 2014 Aug;44(8):802-11. doi: 10.1111/eci.12297. [25041433 ]
Young GH, Wu VC: KLOTHO methylation is linked to uremic toxins and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2012 Apr;81(7):611-2. doi: 10.1038/ki.2011.461. [22419041 ]

Target Details

5. Klotho

General Function:: Vitamin d binding
Specific Function:: May have weak glycosidase activity towards glucuronylated steroids. However, it lacks essential active site Glu residues at positions 239 and 872, suggesting it may be inactive as a glycosidase in vivo. May be involved in the regulation of calcium and phosphorus homeostasis by inhibiting the synthesis of active vitamin D (By similarity). Essential factor for the specific interaction between FGF23 and FGFR1 (By similarity).The Klotho peptide generated by cleavage of the membrane-bound isoform may be an anti-aging circulating hormone which would extend life span by inhibiting insulin/IGF1 signaling.
Gene Name:: KL
Uniprot ID:: Q9UEF7
Molecular Weight:: 116179.815 Da

References

Schulz AM, Terne C, Jankowski V, Cohen G, Schaefer M, Boehringer F, Tepel M, Kunkel D, Zidek W, Jankowski J: Modulation of NADPH oxidase activity by known uraemic retention solutes. Eur J Clin Invest. 2014 Aug;44(8):802-11. doi: 10.1111/eci.12297. [25041433 ]
Young GH, Wu VC: KLOTHO methylation is linked to uremic toxins and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2012 Apr;81(7):611-2. doi: 10.1038/ki.2011.461. [22419041 ]

Target Details

6. NADPH oxidase 4

General Function:: Superoxide-generating nadph oxidase activity
Specific Function:: Constitutive NADPH oxidase which generates superoxide intracellularly upon formation of a complex with CYBA/p22phox. Regulates signaling cascades probably through phosphatases inhibition. May function as an oxygen sensor regulating the KCNK3/TASK-1 potassium channel and HIF1A activity. May regulate insulin signaling cascade. May play a role in apoptosis, bone resorption and lipolysaccharide-mediated activation of NFKB. May produce superoxide in the nucleus and play a role in regulating gene expression upon cell stimulation. Isoform 3 is not functional. Isoform 5 and isoform 6 display reduced activity.Isoform 4: Involved in redox signaling in vascular cells. Constitutively and NADPH-dependently generates reactive oxygen species (ROS). Modulates the nuclear activation of ERK1/2 and the ELK1 transcription factor, and is capable of inducing nuclear DNA damage. Displays an increased activity relative to isoform 1.
Gene Name:: NOX4
Uniprot ID:: Q9NPH5
Molecular Weight:: 66930.995 Da

References

Schulz AM, Terne C, Jankowski V, Cohen G, Schaefer M, Boehringer F, Tepel M, Kunkel D, Zidek W, Jankowski J: Modulation of NADPH oxidase activity by known uraemic retention solutes. Eur J Clin Invest. 2014 Aug;44(8):802-11. doi: 10.1111/eci.12297. [25041433 ]
Young GH, Wu VC: KLOTHO methylation is linked to uremic toxins and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2012 Apr;81(7):611-2. doi: 10.1038/ki.2011.461. [22419041 ]

Target Details

7. Solute carrier family 22 member 8

General Function:: Sodium-independent organic anion transmembrane transporter activity
Specific Function:: Plays an important role in the excretion/detoxification of endogenous and exogenous organic anions, especially from the brain and kidney. Involved in the transport basolateral of steviol, fexofenadine. Transports benzylpenicillin (PCG), estrone-3-sulfate (E1S), cimetidine (CMD), 2,4-dichloro-phenoxyacetate (2,4-D), p-amino-hippurate (PAH), acyclovir (ACV) and ochratoxin (OTA).
Gene Name:: SLC22A8
Uniprot ID:: Q8TCC7
Molecular Weight:: 59855.585 Da

References

Schulz AM, Terne C, Jankowski V, Cohen G, Schaefer M, Boehringer F, Tepel M, Kunkel D, Zidek W, Jankowski J: Modulation of NADPH oxidase activity by known uraemic retention solutes. Eur J Clin Invest. 2014 Aug;44(8):802-11. doi: 10.1111/eci.12297. [25041433 ]
Young GH, Wu VC: KLOTHO methylation is linked to uremic toxins and chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2012 Apr;81(7):611-2. doi: 10.1038/ki.2011.461. [22419041 ]

Putrescine (T3D4169)

Structure for T3D4169: Putrescine

Targets

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